MACRORHABDOSIS IS OPPORTUNISTIC INFECTION OF BIRDS: DIAGNOSIS AND TREATMENT

The microorganism Macrorhabdus ornithogaster was discovered by Van Herck in 1984 and assigned to bacteria [1, 2], but later electron microscopic and molecular genetic studies of various authors have established its belonging to yeast according to the main characteristics of eukaryotes. Analysis of domestic and foreign scientific literature has shown that macrorhabdosis is a poorly studied disease of exotic and ornamental birds. The article summarizes and structured material on the spread of macrorhabdosis, intravital and post-mortem diagnosis and treatment of this disease. The results of studies by many authors indicate that the disease belongs to opportunistic mycoses, the microorganism is localized in many species of exotic and ornamental birds in the isthmus between the glandular and muscular stomachs, causing ventriculitis with the formation of ulcers and hypersecretion of mucus. At the same time, there is a lymphoplasmocytic infiltration of the own plate of the glandular stomach and isthmus, hypertrophy of goblet cells [3-8]. The disease occurs in acute and chronic forms and is manifested by malabsorption, regurgitation, diarrhea and progressive exhaustion [7-9]. Particular attention is paid to the methods of diagnosis of the disease, as well as methods of treatment. The microorganism is detected in the native feces specimen using microscopy [7, 10-12], smear smears of feces with their staining according to Gram or Romanovsky-Giemsa (Diff-Quik) [4, 13], as well as in the study of scrapings or swabs from glandular stomach. Data on new methods of indication and identication of the pathogen are presented, as well as treatment regimens for macrorhabdosis using antifungal drugs. Prevention of the disease is based on compliance with sanitary and hygienic standards of maintenance, proper feeding and timely treatment of concomitant diseases.

Macrorhabdus ornithogaster, macrorhabdosis, Macrorhabdus ornithogaster, decorative and exotic birds, diagnostics, treatment, prevention, pathomorphological changes, antifungal drugs

1. Van Herck H. A bacterial proventriculitis of canaries / H. Van Herck, T. Duijser, G. M. Dorrestein [et al.] // Journal Avian Pathology. - 1984 Jul. - 13 (3). - P. 72

2. Квинтен Д. Болезни декоративных птиц / Д. Квинтен; пер. с нем. В. Пулинец. - М.: Аквариум Принт, 2011. - 208 с

3. Baker J. R. Clinical and pathological aspects of “going light” in exhibition budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) / J. R. Baker // Journal The Veterinary Record. - 1985 Apr. - 116 (15). - P. 406-408

4. Doneley B. Avian Medicine and Surgery in Practice: Companion and Aviary Birds / B. Doneley. - CRC Press, 1 edition, 2010. - 336 p

5. Filippich L. J. Megabacteria in birds in Australia / L. J. Filippich, D. A. O’Boyle, R. Webb // Australian Veterinary Practice. - 1993. - 23. - P. 72-76

6. Filippich L. J. Megabacteriosis and proventricular / ventricular disease in psittacines and passerines / L. J. Filippich, M. G. Parker // Proc. Assoc. Avian Vet. - 1994. - P. 287-293

7. Graham J. E. Five-Minute Veterinary Consult. Avian / J. E. Graham. - Wiley-Blackwell, 1 edition, 2016. - 400 р

8. Swayne D. E. Diseases of Poultry / D. E. Swayne, J. R. Glisson, L. R. McDougald [et al.] // - Wiley-Blackwell. - 13th edition. - 2013. - 1408 p

9. Beynon P. H. Manual of Raptors, Pigeons and Waterfowl / P. H. Beynon, N. A. Forbes // British Small Animal Veterinary Association (BSAVA). 1996. - 360 p

10. Bradley A. Macrorhabdus ornithogaster: inhibitory drugs, oxygen toxicity and culturing from feces / A. Bradley, Y. Hanafusa, D. N. Phalen // USDA sponsored summer research program. - Athens, GA. - July 2005

11. Hadley T. L. Disorders of the psittacine gastrointestinal tract / T. L. Hadley // The Veterinary Clinics of North America; Exotic Animal Practice. - 2005 May. - 8 (2). - P. 329-349

12. Phalen D. N. Implications of Macrorhabdus in Clinical Disorders / D. N. Phalen // Clinical Avian Medicine. - 2013 - V. 11. - P. 705-709

13. Mayer J. Clinical Veterinary Advisor: Birds and Exotic Pets / J. Mayer, T. M. Donnelly. - Saunders, 2013. - 784 p

14. Samanta I. Pet Bird Diseases and Care / I. Samanta, S. Bandyopadhyay. - Singapore: Springer, 2017. - 296 p

15. Tomaszewski E. K., Phylogenetic analysis identifies the ‘megabacterium’ of birds as a novel anamorphic ascomycetous yeast, Macrorhabdus ornithogaster / Tomaszewski E , S. Kathleen, D. N. Phalen [et al.] // International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. - 2003. - V. 53. - P. 1201-1205

16. Hanka K. Macrorhabdus ornithogaster: detection in companion birds, poultry and pigeons, morphological characterization and examination of in vitro cultivation / K. Hanka, K. Koehler, E. F. Kaleta, D. Sommer [et al.] // Praktische Tierarzt. - 2010. - 91. - P. 390-395

17. Phalen D. N. Investigation into the detection, treatment, and pathogenicity of avian gastric yeast / D. N. Phalen, E. Tomaszewski, A. Davis // Proc. Assoc. Avian Vet. - 2002. - P. 49-51

18. Dorrestein G. M. Problems arising from disease during the periods of breeding and rearing canaries and other aviary birds / G. M. Dorrestein., P. Zwart, M. N. Buitelaar // Tijdschr Diergeneeskd. - 1980 Aug. - 105 (13). - P. 535-543

19. Mutlu O. F. Proventriculitis in domestic fowl (Gallus gallus var. dom. L., 1758) caused by megabacteria / O. F. Mutlu [et al.] // Tierarztl. Prax. Ausg. G Grosstiere Nutztiere. - 1997 Sept. - 25 (5). - P. 460-462

20. Marlier D. Increasing incidence of megabacteriosis in canaries (Serinus canarius domesticus) / D. Marlier, C. Leroy, M. Sturbois [et al.] // Veterinary Journal. - 2005. - 172 (3). - P. 549-552

21. Filippich L. J. Prevalence of megabacteria in budgerigar colonies / L. J. Filippich, J. K. Herdrikz // Australian Veterinary Journal. - 1998 Feb. - 76 (2). - P. 92-95

22. Hannafusa Y. Growth and metabolic characterization of M. ornithogaster / Y. Hannafusa, A. Bradley, E. K. Tomaszewski, D. N. Phalen [et al.] // Journal Vet. Diagn. Invest. - 2007. - 19. - P. 256-265

23. Lublin A. A five-year survey of megabacteriosis in birds of Israel and a biological control / A. Lublin // Proc. Assoc. Avian Vet. - 1998. - P. 241-245

24. WHA Fact sheet: Macrorhabdus in wild birds in Australia / Wildlife Health Australia. - Mosman, Australia. - 2013 Nov. - P. 2-10

25. Piasecki T. Occurrence of Macrorhabdus ornithogaster in exotic and wild birds in Poland / T. Piasecki, S. Prochowska, Z. Celmer, A. Sochacka [et al.] // Medycyna Weterynary JNA. - 2012. - 68. - P. 245-249

26. Gerlach H. Megabacteriosis / H. Gerlach // Seminars in Avian and Exotic Pet Medicine. - Elsevier - 2001 Jan. - V. 10 (1). - P. 12-19

27. Schulze C. Megabacteria-associated proventriculitis in poultry in the state of Brandenburg, Germany / C. Schulze, R. Heidrich // DTW Deutsche Tierérztliche Wochenschrift. - 2001 Jun. - 108 (6). - P. 264-266

28. Rossi G. Possibility of infecting mammals with megabacteria isolated from birds / G. Rossi // The Veterinary Record. - 2000 Sep. - 147 (13). - P. 371-372

29. Hanafusa Y. Infection trials in mice suggest that Macrorhabdus ornithogaster is not capable of growth in mammals / Y. Hanafusa, E. Costa, D. Phalen // Medical Mycology. - Australia. - 2013 Aug. - V. 51 (6). - P. 669-672

30. Chitty J. BSAVA Manual of Avian Practice, A Foundation Manual / J. Chitty, D. Monks // BSAVA British Small Animal Veterinary Association. - BSAVA, 1 edition. 2018. - 472 p

31. Scanlan C. M. Characterization of a gram-positive bacterium from the proventriculus of budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) / C. M. Scanlan, D. L. Graham // Journal Avian Diseases, American Association of Avian Pathologists. - 1990. - V. 34 (3). - P. 779 -786

32. Lanzarot P. Prolonged fecal shedding of ‘megabacteria’ (Macrorhabdus ornithogaster) by clinically healthy canaries (Serinus canaria) / P. Lanzarot, J. L. Blanco, S. Alvarez-Perez [et al.] // Medical Mycology. - Spain. - 2013 Nov. - V. 51 (8). - P. 888-891

33. Huchzermeyer F. W. High mortality associated with megabacteriosis of proventriculus and gizzard in ostrich chicks / F. W. Huchzermeyer, M. M. Henton, R. H. Keffen // The Veterinary Record. - 1993 Aug. - 133 (6). - P. 143-144

34. Phalen D. N. Experimental infection of white-leghorn cockerels with Macrorhabdus ornithogaster (megabacterium) / D. N. Phalen, R. Moore // Avian Diseases. - 2003. - Apr-Jun. - 47 (2). - P. 254-260

35. Moore R. P. A method of preventing transmission of so-called megabacteria in budgerigars (Melopsittacus undulatus) / R. P. Moore, K. F. Snowden, D. N. Phalen // Journal of Avian Medicine and Surgery. - 2001. - 15. - P. 283-287

36. Reavill D. Lesions of the Proventriculus / D. Reavill, R. Schmidt // Ventriculus of Pet Birds. - Sacramento, USA. - 2007. - Aug. - P. 89-93

37. Alef K. Methods in Applied Soil Microbiology and Biochemistry / K. Alef, P. Nannipieri // Elsevier Ltd.: Academic Press, 1995. - 608 p

38. Borrelli L. New Diagnostic Insights for Macrorhabdus ornithogaster Infection / L. Borrelli, L. Dipineto, L. Rinaldi, V. Romano [et al.] // Department of Veterinary Medicine and Animal Productions, Université di Napoli Federico II, Journal of Clinical Microbiology. - 2015. - Nov. - V. 53 (11). - P. 3448-3450

39. Ленченко Е. М. Цитология, гистология и эмбриология: учебник для академического бакалавриата / Е. М. Ленченко. - 2-е изд., испр. и доп. - М.: Юрайт, 2018. - 370 с

40. Phalen D. N. Update on the diagnosis and management of Macrorhabdus ornithogaster (formerly Megabacteria) in avian patients / D. N. Phalen // Veterinary Clinics of North America: Exotic Animal Practice. - 2014 May. - 17 (2). - P. 203-210